PROBLEM 1: SHORT ANSWER (60 pts. total)
a) (8 pts.) The Health Professionals Follow-Up Study (HPFS) and Nurses’ Health Study (NHS) are large, ongoing long-term studies designed to support investigations into risk factors for major chronic diseases; the study participants are all health professionals working in the United States. Data is collected regularly via questionnaires that ask participants about diseases, health-related topics like physical activity, and dietary habits.
A recent study using data from 100,000 participants in the HPFS and NHS identified a link between higher citrus consumption (in the form of orange juice and whole grapefruit) and higher risk of skin cancer. Study participants who consumed a serving of citrus at least
1.6 times per day had a 36% higher risk of skin cancer compared to those who consumed a serving of citrus less than twice per week. A news article reporting the results titled “Could Too Much Citrus Cause Skin Cancer?” stated: “People who drink large amounts of orange juice or who eat a lot of grapefruit may be raising their risk of melanoma, the most deadly form of skin cancer.”
Write a short response to the newspaper editor explaining clearly why the language used in the article is potentially misleading. Be sure to use language accessible to a general audience that has not taken a statistics course. Limit your answer to at most six sentences.
b) (14 pts.) Construction workers are known to be at risk of exposure to dangerous heavy metals such as lead. Furthermore, children of construction workers can be at risk of lead poisoning from secondhand exposure; i.e., from lead dust carried home on clothing. Lead poisoning in children is a nationwide public health issue.
A study was conducted to investigate the risk of lead poisoning among children of lead- exposed construction workers in the Greater Boston area. Researchers obtained blood sam- ples from a random sample of 60 children and determined that these children had an aver- age lead concentration of 74.2 micrograms per liter (µg/L), with standard deviation of 24.0 µg/L. The distribution exhibited moderate right skew.
i. Using these summary statistics, compute and interpret a 95% confidence interval. As part of the interpretation, be sure to clearly specify the population parameter in the context of the data.
ii. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) uses a blood lead reference value of 35.0 µg/L to identify children with blood lead levels that are higher than most children’s levels (in the United States population). Communicate the findings in part
i. in language accessible to someone who has not taken a statistics course and use the CDC guideline as a reference point. Limit your answer to no more than four sentences.
c) (16 pts.) Environmental racism refers to how neighborhoods populated primarily by people of color and low-socioeconomic status households are disproportionately exposed to envi- ronmental hazards. A recent NPR report highlighted how lead poisoning continues to affect children in the Midwest today, particularly Black children and children living in low-income neighborhoods. These neighborhoods are more likely to have older houses that contain lead- based paint or be located near a historic source of contamination such as a lead smelter. Researchers are continuing to investigate high levels of lead in children in Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska.
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