Abstract—Battery storage was used in many places involving starting engines, portable devices etc., lithium-based batteries for a long time. Among all the batteries, lithium-based batteries have been widely concerned for its significant advantages such as high gravimetric, high volumetric, high cycle life, high energy efficiency and so on. As a result, Lithium-based batteries have been considered as the most promising storge battery compared to NiCd and NiMH batteries. As a storage container for renew- able energy sources such as wind and solar, lithium-ion batteries reduce reliance on fossil fuels. Therefore, how to reduce the cost undoubtedly becomes an inevitable problem to develop renewable energy. On the one hand, PV industry adopt practices exist in the semiconductor manufacturing to reduce cost. On the other hand, the surface transportation sector is creasing a huge market for batteries that actively participate in drive, which increase the demand for batteries. This research project will provide an overview of process variability in battery manufacturing and provide other manufacturing directions that can provide further cost reduction of manufacturing of Li-ion and solid-state batteries.
Index Terms—Battery storage, Lithium-based battery, solid- state manufacturing.
I. INTRODUCTION
Solid-state lithium-ion batteries, or simply solid-state lithium batteries, are lithium-ion batteries in which all battery units, including the positive and negative electrodes and the electrolyte, are made of solid materials. They have been developed since the 1920s. In terms of construction, solid- state lithium batteries are simpler than traditional lithium- ion batteries[1]-[3]. The solid electrolyte not only conducts lithium ions, but also serves as a separator, as shown in Figure.1. Therefore, in solid-state lithium batteries, there is no need to use electrolyte, electrolyte salts, separators, adhesives such as polyviny lidene fluoride, etc., greatly simplifying the construction process of the battery. The working principle of solid-state lithium batteries is similar to that of liquid electrolyte lithium-ion batteries. During charging, lithium ions in the positive electrode are detached from the lattice of the active material, migrate to the negative electrode through the solid electrolyte, and electrons migrate to the negative electrode through the external circuit. The two combine at the negative electrode to form lithium atoms, alloy or embed into the negative electrode material. The discharge process is the opposite of the charging process, where electrons drive electronic devices through the external circuit[4].
M. Shell was with the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332 USA e-mail: (see http://www.michaelshell.org/contact.html).
J. Doe and J. Doe are with Anonymous University. Manuscript received April 19, 2005; revised August 26, 2015.
Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of an all-solid-state lithium cell
The manufacturing of lithium-ion batteries involves several steps that vary depending on the manufacturer. The processing steps also depend on the chosen chemical composition. After the prototype design, the desired cathode, anode, and other chemicals are selected and arranged to form the battery[5]. Depending on the selection and arrangement, the potential and performance of the battery will be different. Common steps in the manufacturing process include preparing the anode and cathode and applying chemicals to remove solvents. The electrode, electrolyte, binder, separator materials are assem- bled to form a complete battery. Finally, the battery is tested, graded, and packaged into a complete battery pack, which may contain only one or several batteries. From the manufacturer’s perspective, the goal is to minimize the variability of each step and not deviate significantly from the target numbers when obtaining the final product[6]. Manufacturers need to improve battery efficiency, control component variability, and improve manufacturing capabilities through the battery structure in the manufacturing process. In addition, quality control can be achieved in the production process, and manufacturing efficiency can be improved and supply chain costs can be reduced through physical and information means.
In December 2020, the US Department of Energy released a report titled ”Energy Storage Grand Challenge Roadmap”, which advances the development of energy storage in the United States through the ”three major technologies” and ”five major paths”. The three major technology directions in energy storage include: bidirectional power storage technology, chem- ical energy storage and thermal energy storage technology, flexibility power sources and controllable loads[7]. Among them, in bidirectional power storage technology, lithium-ion batteries, sodium-based (including sodium-ion, sodium-metal batteries), lead-acid batteries, zinc-based secondary batteries, and other metal (magnesium, aluminum) system batteries, flow batteries, rechargeable fuel cells, and electrochemical capac-
itors, including electrochemical energy storage technologies. It is required that the average cost of long-term fixed energy storage be reduced to $0.05/kWh, a 90% reduction compared to 2020; the cost of electric vehicle battery packs for a 300- mile range be reduced to $80/kWh, a 44% reduction compared to the current $143/kWh for lithium-ion batteries.
II. MAIN RESULTS
A. Problem Setup
All manufacturing processes have inherent statistical vari- ability, including the electrochemical and solid-state cells that make up a complete battery. Precise measurements are necessary for control purposes before any corrections can be made. Without measurements, unidentified problems cannot be fixed, and control cannot be meaningful[8]. However, the measurement system that works best for a specific process will differ. Therefore, the measurement scheme, data collection, analysis, and feedback must be customized for each process. A useful measure of this customization is expressed in terms of the process-to-tolerance (P/T) ratio. The P/T ratio is defined as the ratio between the process variability and the tolerance
Once the battery is assembled, it is tested, graded, and packaged into a complete battery pack. The manufacturer aims to minimize variability during each step of the manufacturing process and ensure that the final product meets the target specifications. Improving battery efficiency, controlling com- ponent variability, and enhancing manufacturing capabilities are essential aspects that need to be considered during the production process.
Quality control is another critical factor in the manufactur- ing process. It can be achieved through various physical and informational means, such as conducting rigorous testing pro- cedures and implementing comprehensive data analysis tools. These measures can help improve manufacturing efficiency and reduce supply chain costs.
Overall, the manufacturing of lithium batteries is a complex process that involves multiple steps and considerations. By carefully managing each step of the process, manufacturers can create high-quality batteries that meet the required speci- fications and performance standards.
B. Modify Process Mechanism
Solid-state lithium batteries have garnered significant in-
limit:
P
T
= 6σprecision
limupper − limlower
(1)
terest due to their potential for higher energy densities and improved safety compared to traditional liquid electrolyte batteries. The main focus of improving the performance of
where σprecision is square root of sum of repeatability and reproducibility of measurement, limupper and limlower are upper and lower limits of tolerance, respectively.
n a study conducted on solid-state electrolyte for Li-ion cells, the researchers found that variation in the cooling rate resulted in a variation of ionic conductivity. Therefore, the thermal process must be precisely controlled to maintain a consistent cooling rate in all batches. Improvements in battery technology can come from utilizing the insights gained from the equivalent circuit model of the battery.
In this article, we will provide a more detailed explana- tion of the various aspects related to the manufacture of lithium batteries. A single electrochemical or solid-state cell is commonly referred to as a ”battery”, while a collection of these cells is known as a ”battery pack”. The latter often includes a battery management system (BMS) that comprises sensors, controllers, processing units, and other components to optimize the performance and lifespan of the battery.
The manufacture of lithium batteries typically involves mul- tiple steps, which can vary depending on the manufacturer and the specific chemical composition. Once the prototype design has been finalized, the cathode, anode, and other chemical components are selected based on the desired specifications for the battery. The potential and performance of the battery can be altered depending on the choice and arrangement of these components.
The preparation of the anode and cathode is an essential step in the manufacturing process. The chemicals are applied to the electrodes to create a coating, and drying steps are usually required to remove any solvents. Next, the various materials including the electrode, electrolyte, adhesive, separator, etc., are assembled to form a complete battery.
solid-state lithium batteries is on the formation technology of the electrolyte, and controlling the uniformity of the electrolyte film is a crucial factor in battery manufacturing.
1) Optimization methods for electrolytes of different battery types:
The polymer electrolyte layer can be prepared using either dry or wet methods, and the cell assembly is achieved through roll- to-roll lamination between the electrode and electrolyte. Both methods are mature and easy to scale up for the production of large cells. However, these methods have some disadvantages, such as difficulty in controlling film uniformity and incompat- ibility with high-voltage positive electrode materials, leading to low energy density and limited operating temperature.
Improving the preparation of positive electrode and elec- trolyte materials involves optimizing the mechanical properties of the preparation equipment, such as uniformly extruding relevant substances, adjusting pressure and preparation speed, reducing the tension of the electrolyte coating, and fully laminating.
Oxide solid electrolytes have relatively high ionic conduc- tivity and stable chemical properties, making them suitable for large-scale production and application. However, conventional preparation methods require high-temperature sintering, which consumes a lot of energy and has high production costs. To overcome this, new technologies have been proposed, such as using water solutions for low-temperature sintering, developing new oxide solid electrolyte powder materials, and controlling the temperature and uniformity of finished products through material pre-processing.
Sulfide solid electrolytes have ultra-high ionic conductivity and good mechanical properties, making it possible to con- struct a fully solid-state lithium battery without any electrolyte
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